Departures board at Cologne/Bonn airport

This article is a travel topic.

Airplane flight is one of the most common forms of international travel. These are some tips for making your flights safer, more comfortable, and more enjoyable.

Planning your trip

• Ask your travel agent to help you. When you are making the bookings, the travel agent can reserve a particular type of seat for you (e.g. window seat so you can see out, or an aisle seat so you can't be boxed in by other people.) It may be possible to ask for an emergency row seat (see below) at this time although you might have to pay extra. They can also arrange for any special needs you have during travel - diabetic meals, wheelchairs at the airport etc. It's too late to get to the airport and say "I can't walk as far as terminal 369".
• Avoid booking flight segments close together unless you know your airports well. Major airlines consider a connection as tight as 35 minutes to be a valid connection, and sometimes it is entirely reasonable; itineraries that don't involve either clearing Customs, or exiting security between flights and then having to re-enter the secure zone, generally don't require much transit time. However, you can get unpleasant surprises at unfamiliar airports. For example, your arrival and departure gates could be at opposite ends of the building, or even in separate terminals. If you're traveling through an airport you don't know well and travel time is not critical, consider allowing at least an hour and a half to make each connection, particularly if it involves clearing Customs (in which case two hours is safer). If you are not delayed, you can use this slack time to eat at the airport, where the food is likely better than what you may (or may not!) get in the air.
• Another reason for leaving some extra time is that airlines are responsible for broken connections only when the flights are booked on the same ticket. When one airline's delay makes you late to flight with the next one, it's your sole responsibility, and in most cases no refund will be provided from either party.
• Many of the on-line travel arrangers show statistics on how often a given flight arrives on time. Use this information to help you decide whether to risk problems with tight connections, etc. A good, but by no means iron-clad, rule is that the last flight of the day into a given destination will be delayed more often than earlier flights, as the airlines use that flight to "sweep" travelers whose inbound connecting flights run late. Of course, the statistics alone won't tell you whether your particular flight is likely to be delayed, but it's still useful data.

Finding cheap tickets

Ticket pricing is a horrendously complex and messy business, with armies of programmers working overtime to extract every last cent from passengers. It all starts to make some kind of sense when you understand the airline's basic motive: Make people in a hurry pay. To achieve this end, the plane is divided up into fare classes (or buckets), some cheap, some expensive. The following rules determine who can use what fare class:

• Last-minute flights are expensive. Book as early as you can to get the best deals, as the cheap fare classes fill up fast. (Very occasionally, airlines do offload excess inventory at cut-rate prices at the last minute, but it's foolhardy to rely on this.)
• Quick trips are expensive. Many cheap fares require staying at least three nights, and the famous Saturday night stay requirement — designed to trap businessmen who want to return home for the weekend — is still in force in many places.
• Monday morning and Friday evening are the most popular times for businessmen to fly, which makes seats hard to find.
• Holiday seasons are bad times to fly, because everybody else is also on the move. Worldwide biggies include late December to early January (Christmas/New Year and southern summer vacations) and July-August (northern summer vacations), but watch out for local holidays as well, such as the Golden Weeks in China and Japan.
• Direct/non-stop flights (see box for the difference) from A to B are always expensive, as some people will pay a premium for the convenience and there is little competition. Transferring at point C is a time-consuming hassle, but it can save you a bundle, as there are many options and airlines compete to undercut each other.

When buying a ticket, it would seem obvious to call up the airline itself, but counterintuitively this is often the most expensive way to get a ticket. Cheap fare classes are often sold to travel agents in bulk, so the airline only has the expensive ones left for itself. Again, the main exception is for last-minute flights, if an agent returns a bunch of unsold seats and the airline decides to sell them off cheap.

The frugal traveller will thus start looking early, be very flexible and explore a wide variety of options. Search engines like Expedia [1] and Travelocity [2] can help you explore your options, but note that these may not show discount airline flights and are rather North America-centric, often showing ridiculously inflated (full-fare) prices for travel outside North America. To find a low-cost / no-frill flight it can be good to check one of the comparison tools [3]. For international travel, you can almost always get the best deals by booking from an agent at the starting point, like Zuji for Hong Kong [4] or Singapore [5], or No. 1 Travel [6] for Japan.

See also: First and business class travel, Round the world flights.

Reservations and ticketing

From the moment you first book your flight to the moment you step on the plane, there's a lot going on in the background. The following may be helpful in understanding what is happening.

The first step is to make a reservation for your flight. This means that the airline will hold a seat for you until a given date, typically a week or so before the flight. If you do not pay up before the expiration date, the booking will be cancelled and somebody else can grab the seat. Reservations can be changed and cancelled freely.

• A seat reserved just for you will be listed as confirmed in your reservation, and will not be taken away. You can only confirm a single seat in each direction per ticket.
  • Tip: If you're not sure what time you can make it to the airport, book the last flight of the day. This way you can always try to fly "standby" on earlier flights if you get to the airport earlier than expected.
• If a specific flight is fully booked but you want to try to get on it, you can make a waitlisted reservation. If the waitlist "clears", meaning that somebody else cancels and you get their seat, the waitlisted reservation becomes confirmed and any previously confirmed seats on other flights are cancelled. You can usually waitlist multiple flights, but really cheap nonchangeable tickets may not allow any waitlisting at all.

Turning a reservation into an actual ticket is called issuing the ticket. An issued ticket must be paid for and, depending on ticket type, some or all of following restrictions may now apply:

• nonchangeable: you cannot change the flight time and date (at least not without paying a heavy change fee)
• nonendorsable: you cannot fly another airline if your airline has problems (for serious cases like flight cancellations this is usually overruled by local legislation)
• nonrefundable: you cannot get your money back if you don't fly
• nonreroutable: you cannot change to another route, even if the destination is the same
• nontransferable: you cannot sell the ticket to somebody

These various restrictions (or lack thereof) play a large role in determining the price of that ticket.

If you are still waitlisted for a flight that you would like to board, or if you would like to take an earlier flight than you're booked on, you can try to fly standby. This means simply showing up at the airport check-in counter and asking to be put on the next flight. If there is plenty of space, you'll be checked in right there. However, if the flight is looking full, you will have to wait until the flight is closed (typically 30-60 minutes before departure) and the airline can count how many seats it has left.

If you don't check in by closing time, you will be declared a no-show. Your seat can now be given to somebody on standby and your ticket is forfeited, which depending on the ticket and airline may mean either total loss or, at a minimum, a hefty no-show fee if you try to rebook.

Note that many discount airlines streamline this process considerably so that no reservations are possible, only fully paid and issued tickets. Flight restrictions are typically draconian — some companies even ban standby changes — so you'll have to pay lots to make any change and have no hope of getting a refund.

Health and security concerns

• Check official government travel warnings. Whether or not you are a US citizen, you may be interested in the US State Department's travel warnings.
• Be sure you have all required vaccinations and travel documents. Photocopy important documents (such as your passport) and store copies separately in case the originals are lost.
• Airplanes fly at high altitude and cabin pressure is lower than on the ground. This can be particularly uncomfortable if your nose or ears are clogged due to a cold, so if you have to fly when sick, take a decongestant such as Sudafed at least one hour before departure. It's a good idea to avoid flying for fifteen days after surgery, or in the case that you have recently broken a bone. The air pressure can cause extremely uncomfortable swelling. Sometimes the flight attendant will have to cut open a cast because of the swelling. This is part of their training in flight school.
• There is a risk of premature labour if pregant women fly when they are over 35 weeks pregnancy or have pregnancy complications. See Tips for women travellers for more information.

Frequent flyers

Many airlines offer a frequent flyer loyalty program, rewarding patrons who fly regularly with them or who fly long distances. The loyalty schemes work on a segments or miles basis: you get rewards after you fly a certain number of trips ('segments') or after the total distance of your flights exceeds a certain amount. Business and first class passengers may receive bonus miles for each journey. If you are not a member of a frequent flyer program, consider joining one - especially if you travel to an intercontinental destination or plan to take additional trips. You may get something out of it, at the price of having your data profiled and used for advertisement.

The frequent flyer rewards typically include:

• Free flights and Upgrades. Once you have earned enough miles/points, you can claim a flight and/or an upgrade award. The mileage cost of the award will vary depending on your itinerary.
• If you collect enough points in a year you can become an elite member (often denoted as silver, gold, platinum, etc). This can give you advantages such as check-in at the business counter, early boarding, priority in waitlists, and access to airport lounges in which you can wait for your flight and relax, read newspapers, have a drink, or even enjoy a simple meal such as sandwiches or breakfast rolls. A few lounges have free internet access. Lounges are also available to holders of some credit cards: Diners Club; GlobeCard Platinum; Master Card; and American Express.

Check that your miles will be credited by giving your frequent flyer number to your travel agent. Also check at the check-in desk that the flight has been credited to your frequent flyer account. You can usually claim miles for flights up to 12 months after you've taken them, but you will need to keep your boarding pass stubs. It's easier to register your number at the time of booking.

Your airline of choice may be a member of an airline alliance, which allows you to earn and use your miles on other airlines as well. The big three alliances are Star Alliance, oneworld and SkyTeam.

You may also be able to claim points from other sources. Credit cards affiliated to a program are particularly useful, as you'll typically get miles every time you use them and this can quickly rack up to a free trip per year, but hotel stays, car rentals and even mobile phone bills may garner you points. Check your frequent flyer program for details.

For more information on collecting miles on frequent traveller programs check out:

• FlyerTalk, a busy free site dedicated to frequent flyers around the world
• DealMine.com, a comparison shopping mashup with miles and points offers from frequent flier programs and discounts from a wide variety of associations, clubs, unions, credit cards, work benefits and more

Packing

From the point of view of an airline, there are two types of luggage: checked and carry-on. Checked luggage is given to airline staff at check-in time and stored in the hold of the aircraft. Carry-on luggage is taken on board the flight with you. The weight and size limits for carry-on luggage are typically very restrictive; they're designed to let you take on board a few essentials for comfort and anything small and easily damaged. So usually, unless you're travelling very light or for a short period of time, you will check most of your luggage and pack a few essentials for the flight in your carry-on luggage.

However if you do not really need loads of luggage, it may be worth considering taking carry-on only [7]. This saves time at your destination because you don't have to wait to claim your checked luggage, and certainly carry-on luggage is less prone to get lost. Check with your airline to make sure that your bag fits within their size/weight restrictions for carry-ons, and whether your purse or laptop counts toward the limit of how many bags you can carry. Also, with tight safety restrictions on what kinds of items you can take with you into the passenger compartment (particularly nothing that could be used as a weapon), a carry-on-only strategy may not be practical.

If passing through the U.S., you may want to read the Transportation Security Administration's Prepare for Takeoff guide.

How much should I pack?

• Don't take more luggage than you can carry by yourself. Airports generally have baggage carts for rent, but you have to have local currency (usually coins) to use them.
• Don't overpack. It may be tempting to take as much as you are allowed, but you may want to purchase souvenirs, duty-free items, etc. which will add to your burden on the return trip.
• Beware of luggage weight limits. The usual limits are:
  • Carry-on luggage anywhere: 1 piece, maximum weight 7 kg, maximum size 20x40x55 cm (9x14x22 in.), some European lowcost airlines don't have the weight limit on it, however.
  • Checked luggage on international flights outside the United States: 1 piece, maximum 20 kg (44 lbs)
  • Checked luggage on international flights to the United States: 2 pieces, maximum 32 kg (70 lbs) each
  • Checked luggage on domestic flights in the United States: 2 pieces, maximum 23 kg (50 lbs) each

Not all airlines have the same weight and size requirements. Low-cost carriers in particular apply lower limits, while elite members of frequent flyer programs are often allowed more. If in doubt, check with your airline. It is quite possible to get halfway around the world with your two bags and then to discover that they are too heavy/bulky for your next airline to carry them. If you are planning a long trip, make sure that your luggage meets the strictest limit before you start.

Carry on vs. checked luggage

• Don't have any sharp or other prohibited objects in your carry-on baggage because they are highly likely to be confiscated at the airport. This includes pointed scissors, nailscissors, metal nailfiles, pocket knives, Swiss Army knives, large screwdrivers or similar tools, baseball bats, and so on. Go through your manicure kit and take them out, and stow them away in your (check-in) suitcase. Carefully pack them so they don't stab an unsuspecting baggage handler. If passing through the USA, check the list of prohibited items from the Transportation Security Administration.
• Be sure to check for restrictions on toy weapons, which tend to make security personnel nervous. "Convincing" looking toy weapons are illegal in some countries anyway.
  • Pressurized containers, explosives, and hazardous materials are likely to be prohibited in the cabin or entirely. For the USA, see the TSA's guide to Transporting Special Items.
• If you are carrying any valuables, put them into your carry-on bag rather than your checked luggage. Your checked luggage will be thrown around in transit: if you have something that wouldn't survive a good solid landing from ten feet, take it in carry on. Note that some travel insurance policies will not cover fragile items in checked luggage.
• If you have a bag with an unusual amount of electronic equipment (for example, a music player, headphones, a power adapter for your laptop, and a power adapter for your cell phone), it is more likely to be opened and manually inspected. (Bombs often have electronic timing devices which your electronics may resemble under X-ray.)
• If you carry a laptop computer, make sure the batteries are not completely drained. You might be asked to turn it on. This is rare, but happens. In addition, in many countries, laptop computers are scanned separate from other carry-ons. (You will have to remove it from a bag or pouch.)
• If you have a large umbrella (not the folding kind, which you could store in a carry-on bag), either leave it home or check it. If you do check it, it may be delivered to a special baggage claim area because it will not travel well on the conveyor belt system. Due to the special handling, it may take extra time to arrive. British airlines seem especially wary of umbrellas, perhaps because of the assassination of Georgi Markov. Or perhaps just because they are long and potentially sharp. The best idea may be to get a small fold-up umbrella, or buy one at your destination. U.S. regulations allow umbrellas after they have been inspected for concealed items.

As I'm packing my bags, any tips ?

• Pack things in plastic bags inside your check-in luggage. Bags may be exposed to the elements while waiting for the airplane to come in, and for its off-coming luggage to be unloaded. Be sure to press the air out of the plastic bags while packing as it takes up the valuable volume in your luggage.

• Put an identification tag on your bag: name, next-door-neighbor's address, telephone number, flight number, date you are travelling, point of departure, aircraft changes, final destination airport, and destination hotel. Put the same information on a sheet of paper at the top of the bag (in case the tag is lost).

• Consider customizing the outside with colored tape, so it doesn't look exactly the same as everyone else's bag when you reclaim it at the end of your journey.

• Pack items that would be rejected as carry-on in a smaller bag, inserted in a bag you plan to check in. Then if a particular airline is unable to check in the luggage and forces you to treat it as carry-on, you can easily remove and dispose of the items. This has been happening with certain European airlines. Be prepared to either have those items confiscated, or prepare a postal envelope to ship them somewhere before the security check.

• Airlines often lose just some of your bags instead of all of them. So distribute your clothes and other necessary things around all the bags you have. If you're travelling with someone, distribute your stuff across both your bags.

Locking your bags

• If traveling in or to the United States, do not lock your bags when you check them in at the airport. All bags passing through US airports must be either X-rayed or manually inspected. If your bags need to be manually inspected and they are locked, the TSA will break the lock. If you are worried about the security of your baggage enroute to the airport, unlock the case at the counter before you check it in. After inspection and xray, bags are generally 'locked' with a plastic tie so that nobody can tamper with them. However there are locks with universal keying that are available and allowed through TSA's inspection.
• Be aware that the main part of your suitcase will be tied shut with an unbreakable plastic tie when you get it back at the other end of your flight. If you're prepared you'll have a pair of nailscissors in the outside pocket of your suitcase so you can get the tie off - they do NOT usually secure this smaller outside pocket.

What to carry on

• If travel involves the United States, place all liquids in your checked luggage except for prescription medications and any nonprescription medications listed on the current TSA guidelines at http://www.tsa.gov. Plan on discarding all cosmetics and beverages at the TSA checkpoint. Also, expect to be required to discard anything purchased in the airport before boarding the plane.
• Take a large bottle of water with you. Airliner cabins are very dry and drinking plenty of water helps to avoid dehydration.
• Take nonperishable snacks, especially if you are hypoglycemic, diabetic, or have blood-sugar issues. Don't count on being able to buy it at the airport. If you have a tight connection and have to cross an entire airport, there is no way you'll have time to stop at the cafe as well. If you're traveling to the United States, Australia, or New Zealand, don't bring more fruit than you can eat before you arrive - these countries have strict rules about bringing food in. On longer flights there will probably be a meal or snack served (or offered for purchase), but not necessarily.
• If you have an allergy, bring decongestants to avoid discomfort from the change in cabin pressure. Cabin air can also be a problem; for example, in planes going to Australia and New Zealand, the cabin may be sprayed with pesticides.
• Keep yourself occupied. Some planes have the latest in-flight entertainment systems, music on tape, and onboard games to keep you amused, but others may not have anything at all. Twelve or fourteen hours is a very long time to be bored. Treat yourself to a good book or two for the flight.
• Take a soft jacket. This can be used as a blanket or pillow if these items are needed but not available. Sometimes the outer edge of the cabin can get rather cold (due to the very low temperature at high altitudes).
• Take at least one pair of soft foam earplugs. Even on short flights, the noise of the jet turbines or the small child sitting behind you can be fatiguing. Foam earplugs will reduce the noise level but still allow you to hear instructions in case of an emergency.

Before you fly

Special requests

Once you have confirmed your flights, be sure to let your travel agent know if you have any special requests. Typical examples include:

• special meals (vegetarian, kosher, medical restrictions, allergies, etc)
• special seats (exit row seats for tall people, bulkhead seats for baby bassinets)
• airport assistance (wheelchair or unaccompanied minor)

Alas, airlines have a tendency to lose track of the many requests they get, so if it's really important it's wise to contact the airline directly and make sure the message has gotten through.

Reconfirming your flight

In general, it is no longer necessary to call the airline to reconfirm flights, as reservation systems are fairly reliable. Instead, just check the reservation online (see the next section) and call the airline only if there are problems.

The main exceptions are when you are flying way off the beaten track on an airline that doesn't (or looks like it doesn't!) do computerized reservations, especially when there won't be another flight for a week. Off the beaten track in Indonesia, for example, it's wise to reconfirm not just once but twice — although you may still get bumped off if a VIP and his harem show up at the last minute.

Checking your reservation

It's always good to double-check that your itinerary is still correct before you fly. Not only can you check that everything is order, you can see whether any waitlists have cleared, flight times have changed, your special requests are properly recorded, etc. There are a number of online services that allow you to do this; however, you'll have to figure out which reservation system was used to do the booking. This is usually printed at the top of your itinerary, but if all else fails you can always ask the agent.

• Abacus/Sabre: http://www.virtuallythere.com
• Amadeus: http://www.checkmytrip.com
• Apollo/Galileo: http://www.viewtrip.com
• Worldspan: http://www.mytripandmore.com

Note that low-cost carrier flights will not show up in these systems.

Travel insurance

Make sure your travel insurance is in order and that it covers the area you are going to. Also study the fine print: many travel insurance schemes will actually pay out in the event of long delays, lost baggage, etc.

At the airport

You need to arrive at airports well before your flight as there are a number of procedures you need to complete before boarding: check in, security check, and perhaps immigration control. Airlines will typically have departure boards (displays) indicating a flight's status. The most important status indicators are Go to gate, which is a sign that you should promptly complete check-in and proceed through the security check, and Final call, which means that you should board the flight as quickly as possible.

Reduce stress - get to the airport a half an hour before the recommended time. (Check with your airline. In the US, the recommended time is usually 1 hour before takeoff for domestic flights, 2 hours for international.) This will ensure that you will not be stressed while standing in long queues for check-in, security, emigration, and more security. It also gives you a buffer for delays on the way to the airport.

If for some reason you are delayed and you're worried about missing your flight or the flight status indicates that you are in danger of missing your flight, find a member of your airline's staff or talk to staff at the security gate. If you are really in danger of missing your flight, they can arrange for speedy check-ins and for you to be moved up in queues. But they won't notice if you don't tell them. Calling for late-passenger instructions while you are on your way to the airport can also help. The plane will not wait for you; but it might wait if you're one of 50 connecting passengers on a delayed flight.

Checking in

The first thing you will need to do at the airport is check in for your flight. Present your ticket (if you don't have an electronic ticket) and some form of ID (passport if travelling internationally) to airline staff at your flight's designated check-in counter or at common check-in counter, depending on your airline. With some airlines you will receive a boarding pass with a seat assignment, while some do not assign seats. You may need a boarding pass to present to the security staff and later when boarding the flight. At this time, your checked luggage will be weighed, labelled, and handed off to airport staff.

An increasing number of airlines are implementing a self-check-in system at certain airports, although it can be restricted to passengers without checked luggage, and to passengers who do not have a physical ticket. These systems involve small kiosks in which you can enter your booking reference and which will print out a boarding pass for you. It may also be possible to check-in via the internet.

If there are several flight "legs" between you and your destination, ask check-in staff if they can check your bags all the way through so that you don't have to pick them up and re-check them at every stop. It's important that you know when you will and won't have to transfer your bags yourself: some countries insist on incoming international passengers retrieving and re-checking all luggage before transferring to another, domestic flight. On the other hand, you don't want to have to wait around for your bags only to find that they were booked through.

Choosing your seat

At check-in, you'll probably be asked if you want a window or aisle seat. Both have their advantages:

Window seats are popular with many flyers, as they allow you to look out the window, rest your head against it while sleeping and not be disturbed by other passengers. The major downside is that you'll have to clamber over a seatmate or two to go to the bathroom or access any of your carryons in the overhead.

Aisle seats are the choice of some road warriors, because they make it easy to get out and off the plane. On long flights, though, it's hard to get sleep with people climbing over you, and you also run an additional risk of being hit by trolleys.

The third possibility is middle seats, which combine the disadvantages of both aisle and window seats without the advantages of either. There are some special rows too:

Exit row seats are located next to the emergency exit rows, and have significantly greater legroom than standard seats. However, all your hand baggage has to go in the overhead compartment if you are in these rows. In theory, passengers in these seats are required to help attendants with the door in an emergency, so you might not be allowed to sit there if you are physically unable to help, if you are deaf or blind, if you are a child or supervising a child or if you are pregnant. Because of the desirability of exit-row seats, some airlines now charge extra for them, using the name "Economy Plus" or similar. If you're very tall you may sometimes get these seats without paying but don't count on it. Ask specifically at check-in and state the reason you want one.

Bulkhead seats are in the first row of each section and offer not just oodles of legroom, but also no seat reclining into you. However, they're also the only seats that can be outfitted with infant bassinets, so most airlines reserve them for families with small children. You may be able to snag one on check-in or even at the gate, but then you run the risk of sitting next to a screaming baby for your entire flight. Like exit rows, you have to store all your baggage overhead.

In most jet aircraft, seats in the tail end of the plane are exposed to more cabin noise than the front and middle. The difference in noise can be significant enough to cause discomfort, and it's one of the reasons why first class is always located in the front. However, this effect is often evened out by screaming infants, who ironically tend to be seated in the most quiet area available, in the front of the economy section. In wide-body aircraft, rear economy window seats will provide you with the best view, since the view in the front of the economy section is obstructed by the large wings.

The effects of turbulence are weakest near the leading edge of the wing - somewhere in the middle of the aircraft.

All airplanes also have 'ordinary' seats that are less or more desirable for some reason:

• seats at the tail end of the plane often have no middle seats, which gives you more room to spread out
• seats just before the exit row and at the end of a section may not recline
• seats next to the toilets may be smelly and have lots of people trooping up and down to them

However, these vary greatly between airplanes and airlines, so you'll need to consult detailed seat maps to figure out the good and bad ones. Several online sites provide detailed seatmaps for in-service aircraft and can help when choosing the best seat:

• SeatGuru
• SeatExpert

Overbooking

Overbooking is the practice of accepting reservations for a flight from more people than can fit on the plane. Almost all airlines overbook their flights, as statistically some percentage of passengers do not show up for the flight.

It does happen, though, that more people check in than can fit on the plane. When this happens, the airline staff will ask passengers to volunteer, either at the checkout counter or after the plane is full, to remain behind and take another flight. If your travel plans are flexible (such as on the homeward leg of your excursion), you may wish to volunteer, to receive the compensation that airlines usually offer to get out of this predicament. If there are no volunteers, passengers will be chosen by the airline to stay behind (usually the last passengers to arrive). "Bumped" passengers are almost always offered passage to their destination by some other route or on a later flight; it is common for airlines to offer a voucher for a substantial discount on a future flight, or even cash, in compensation for the inconvenience. If an overnight stay is required, the airline will usually pay for a hotel and meals during the delay. Your rights are regulated at the country level; some airlines may offer additional compensation (but their policy on this is rarely published).

Compensation for denied boarding for flights in the European Union is €250 for flights < 1500Km, €400 for 1500-3500 Km, and €600 >3500Km (half if the delay is less than 2, 3 or 4 hours, respectively) in addition to an alternative flight or a refund of the ticket [8]. One way to reduce the risk of overbooking is to check-in very early, either by Internet or by telephone before arriving at the airport.

Flight cancellation

When a flight is cancelled, the reason given is usually some kind of technical or weather-related problem. Sometimes the real reason is that so few passengers have checked in that is cheaper for the airline to cancel the flight and rebook the passengers on a later flight, or even on another airline. If a flight is cancelled, the airline is obligated to get you on the next available flight to your destination, but interpretations of "next available" vary and, for some low-cost carriers like Ryanair, this may mean a long wait indeed. Unlike with overbooking, passengers are not legally entitled to any compensation except the unplanned expenses of food and hotels.

Boarding time

Your boarding ticket specifies Boarding time -- which is when boarding starts (not when it ends). Usually the boarding starts even after the printed time. The gate closes (boarding stops) usually only 10-15 minutes before departure.

Security check

Aviation security is no laughing matter. Even before the airliner attacks on New York and Washington in 2001, most countries took it very seriously, but since then security regulations have been tightened, and airport security personnel will be very strict in implementing these regulations.

• Above all else: Always keep your luggage with you. Airport security takes unaccompanied suitcases very seriously. If one is found and the owner is not within reach to claim it, this will almost immediately trigger an alert, resulting in the affected area closing down, and inspection of the suspicious piece of luggage by experts. The result will be serious inconvenience for a lot of people, and for you a delay, and maybe even fines or the total loss of your luggage (which might be destroyed if it appears to be a bomb).
• Depending on current procedures, you may be more likely to get a supplemental personal security check (being taken aside and examined with a handheld metal detector) at U.S. airports if you are travelling alone, buy a one-way ticket, pay cash, buy your ticket at the last minute, or change destinations on the day of the flight. This might take an additional 15 minutes or so at the security checkpoint.
• Be proactive to avoid making unnecessary delays or getting stopped by security. Before you enter the queue for the checkpoint:
  • Take off your jacket; it will need to be X-rayed.
  • Take out all the metal in your pockets (including phones, keys, change, etc.). Instead of fumbling with the provided plastic bins, put loose metal objects (especially change) in a bag or jacket pocket that will go through the X-ray machine.
  • Remove any large objects from your pockets that create a suspicious bulge. They will probably be uncomfortable to keep there on the plane anyway.
  • Don't wear a belt with a large metal buckle or other metal ornamentation, or if you do, take it off.
  • Shoes that can be easily removed and put back on are a good idea, because you may be asked to remove them for inspection. Don't wear hiking boots or other shoes with large metal loops or steel plates in the soles. American security is especially wary of shoe bombs after the Richard Reid incident.
  • If in the US, get ready to unload your laptop if you're carrying one. It will need to be put through the X-ray machine by itself.
• While your bags are being checked through security, keep an eye on them at all times, especially if you have put valuables inside. Security personnel are supposed to allow you to watch the entire inspection process, so even if you or one of your bags is being searched, any other bags you might have should be within sight. Security personnel are focused on keeping the terminal area secure. They won't necessarily notice if a stranger grabs your bag or takes something out of it, especially since they may not notice who it really belongs to.
• Don't make jokes about bombs, weapons, or other security threats. There is no room for humor on this topic; rather than relying on their individual subjective judgment, security personnel are required to take any such joke as a serious statement. You will be checked more thoroughly, or even escorted off the premises in some cases.

On board

After you proceed through security you will reach the departure area. Depending on the airport this may be either bare or full of shopping and entertainment. Your flight will have an associated gate number where it is boarding.

Before boarding

• Find the gate where you are boarding: be there no later than 15 minutes before the flight's scheduled departure, and preferably a little earlier. At the gate, airline staff will check your boarding pass and may also want to see photo ID. At this point, you will be registered as being on-board the flight. The departure area may be quite large: some contain up to fifty gates.
• Switch off your mobile phone before you board the plane. Using a mobile phone on board is a violation of air travel safety laws, even during boarding when the plane is still on the ground. The crew will ask you to turn off your phone, and if you do not comply you will be escorted off the plane.

During the flight

• Count the number of seat backs between your seat and the emergency exits. If you ever need to evacuate an aircraft in an emergency you may need to do it in a darkened cabin that could be full of thick black smoke. If the aisle is full of people you will at least know the number of seats you need to climb over to get out in that one in a million emergency.
• Read the emergency instructions and watch the safety briefing. It may be boring but if an emergency happens you will remember what to do, rather than having to read the emergency card first.
• Wear your seatbelt whenever you are sitting in your seat. While you may not think you need it in smooth level flight, aircraft can make sudden unexpected maneuvers even at cruising altitude. Air turbulence can occur without warning even in clear air and can throw you from your seat. Unexpected turbulence is the most common cause of serious injury in the air.
• Drink lots of water, and avoid caffeine and alcohol. Otherwise you will dehydrate at an alarming pace, which worsens jet lag and can induce splitting headaches. Don't hesitate to ask air crew for more water, or to walk up to the galley to request more.
• Don't sit completely still. The human body isn't designed for sitting completely still for many hours. Try to adjust your seating position as often as possible (you do this in your sleep anyway). Try to stretch, move your toes in circles, anything you can do in your seat. Many airlines will now periodically show video programs you can follow to get some exercise in your seat. You can follow them, or do your own thing (or both). By changing position, and moving around a little, you make sure every part of your body get the circulation it needs. And you'll feel better.
• Ensure you stow any loose items before landing. Put magazines and books in the seat pocket. Do not leave them lying on the empty seat beside you. Under heavy braking on landing, even seemingly light article can become projectiles that can travel the length of the plane.
• Always follow the instructions of the flight attendants. They are not simply waiters, they are responsible for your safety. Do not argue with them. Any conflict or object you have to their service should be resolved on the ground. If an "unruly passenger" becomes a serious problem, the captain of the plane will make an unscheduled landing, and the passenger will be taken off the airplane. In many juristictions, flight attendant instructions are backed up by law; in the US, for example, disobeying a flight attendant is a felony offense!

Jet lag

Jet lag is not caused by flying per se, but is a form of disorientation and fatigue caused by abruptly switching to a different sleeping/waking schedule and different daylight hours. Some people are affected more than others, but it tends to happen when crossing two or more time zones in a single flight (which first became commonplace with the development of commercial jet air travel, hence the term).

One way to avoid jet lag for short stays is to ignore the difference in time zone, and maintain the same sleeping schedule as you would according to the time "back home", perhaps keeping lights on to simulate daylight and pulling shades to simulate night. This is less practical for longer stays, or when travelling several time zones from home which would place you far out of synch with local hours.

The impact may be diminished by gradually adjusting your sleep schedule in advance of a long-distance trip. For example, before flying from California to Germany, you might start a week ahead of time, going to bed and waking up an hour earlier each day. By the time you actually made the trip, your sleep schedule would be almost in synch with your destination.